The vocabulary, decoded.

// Lab methods & analysis

HPLC

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. Reverse-phase HPLC is the standard method for measuring peptide purity. The result is reported as the percentage area of the main peak versus everything else. The Pepmod purity floor is ≥98%.

LC-MS

Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Confirms the identity of a peptide by measuring its molecular weight. The observed m/z must match the theoretical value within tight tolerance.

MALDI-TOF

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight. An alternative mass-spec method commonly used for peptide identification and structural verification.

LAL

Limulus Amebocyte Lysate. The pharmacopeial method for detecting bacterial endotoxins in parenteral products. Reports endotoxin units (EU) per milligram against established safety limits.

USP <71>

The United States Pharmacopeia chapter that defines compendial sterility testing - a 14-day incubation in two growth media to detect any bacterial or fungal contamination.

COA

Certificate of Analysis. The document a third-party lab issues for a specific batch, listing all tests performed, their methods, the specifications, observed results, and pass/fail status. See a sample on the transparency page.

Chromatogram

The visual output of an HPLC run - a plot of detector signal versus time. The peptide of interest appears as a peak; impurities show as smaller peaks separated in time. A real chromatogram on the COA is the only way to actually verify a stated purity number.

m/z

Mass-to-charge ratio. The quantity mass spectrometers actually measure. For a peptide, observed m/z is compared against the theoretical value calculated from the sequence; a close match confirms identity.

RCT

Randomized Controlled Trial. The gold-standard study design in clinical research: participants are randomly assigned to treatment or comparator, ideally blinded to which they receive. Reduces selection bias and confounding.

Meta-analysis

A study that pools the quantitative results of multiple prior trials to estimate a more precise effect size than any single trial could provide. Useful but only as strong as the trials it aggregates and the inclusion criteria used.

Preclinical

Research conducted before any human trials - in cells (in vitro), in animals (in vivo), or in computational models. Preclinical data establishes mechanism and rough safety but does not establish efficacy in humans.

// Chemistry & formulation

Peptide

A short chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Smaller than proteins. Typical research peptides are between 5 and 50 amino acids long.

Amino acid

The building block of peptides and proteins. There are 20 standard amino acids in biology, each with a specific side chain that determines its chemical properties.

Lyophilization

Freeze-drying. The process of removing water from a peptide solution under low temperature and vacuum, leaving a stable powder that can be stored long-term and reconstituted as needed.

Reconstitution

Dissolving a lyophilized peptide back into solution, typically with bacteriostatic water, before use in research.

Bacteriostatic water

Sterile water that contains a small amount of preservative (benzyl alcohol) to inhibit bacterial growth. Commonly used to reconstitute lyophilized peptides in research settings.

Acetate salt

A common counterion form for synthesized peptides. Acetate content is reported on the COA and contributes to overall peptide weight; the net peptide content adjusts for it.

Endotoxin

Cell-wall fragments from Gram-negative bacteria. Even in trace amounts, endotoxins can trigger immune responses, which is why LAL testing is critical for parenteral research products.

cGMP

Current Good Manufacturing Practice. The FDA standard that governs the manufacturing, processing, and quality control of pharmaceutical products. Pepmod sources from cGMP-aligned synthesis facilities.

N-terminus

The end of a peptide chain that carries a free amino (NH2) group. By convention, peptide sequences are written N-terminus first (left to right).

C-terminus

The end of a peptide chain that carries a free carboxyl (COOH) group. The opposite end of the chain from the N-terminus. Often modified (amidated, lipidated) in synthetic analogs to extend half-life.

Residue

A single amino acid in a peptide chain after the water has been lost forming the peptide bond. A "37-residue peptide" has 37 amino acids linked end-to-end.

RMSF

Root-Mean-Square Fluctuation. A per-residue measure of how much that amino acid moves across an ensemble of conformations - higher RMSF means more flexible. In our 3D viewer, bead brightness scales with RMSF: dimmer beads are more rigid.

Intrinsically disordered

A peptide or protein that does not adopt a single stable 3D structure, instead populating an ensemble of conformations. Many short signaling peptides are intrinsically disordered in solution and only fold when bound to their target.

// Biology & physiology

Receptor agonist

A molecule that binds to and activates a specific receptor, triggering a biological response. Many research peptides are agonists at specific receptors (e.g., GLP-1, GHS-R).

Pulsatile release

A hormone-release pattern where secretion happens in discrete pulses rather than continuously. Growth hormone is the canonical pulsatile hormone - preserving its natural pulse is a key design consideration for GH-modulating research.

Half-life

The time it takes for the concentration of a molecule in the body to fall by half. Half-life governs how often a peptide must be administered to maintain effective levels.

Angiogenesis

The formation of new blood vessels from existing ones. A key part of wound healing and tissue repair. BPC-157 is studied for its angiogenic effects.

IGF-1

Insulin-like Growth Factor 1. A downstream marker of growth hormone signaling. IGF-1 levels are often measured in GH-related research as a stable proxy for GH activity.

NAD+

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. A coenzyme central to cellular energy metabolism. NAD+ availability declines with age and metabolic dysfunction, making it a target of interest for longevity research.

NNMT

Nicotinamide N-Methyltransferase. An enzyme that methylates nicotinamide. NNMT overexpression depletes NAD+ pools; inhibitors like 5-Amino-1MQ aim to restore NAD+ levels.

Growth hormone

The pituitary hormone that drives growth and metabolism. Released in discrete pulses (especially during deep sleep) and downstream-amplified via IGF-1. The target of GHRH analogs (CJC-1295) and ghrelin mimetics (Ipamorelin).

Ghrelin

A gut-derived hormone that activates the GHS-R receptor to trigger growth hormone release and signal hunger. Ipamorelin is a selective ghrelin-receptor agonist that mimics the GH-release signal without the appetite or cortisol effects of natural ghrelin.

Incretin

A class of gut hormones (most prominently GLP-1 and GIP) released in response to food intake that potentiate insulin secretion. Incretin-mimetic peptides like Semaglutide and Retatrutide work by binding these receptors.

Secretagogue

Any molecule that triggers the secretion of another substance. In peptide research, "GH secretagogue" specifically means a compound that prompts the pituitary to release growth hormone.

Lipolysis

The breakdown of stored triglycerides in adipocytes into free fatty acids and glycerol that can be used as fuel. AOD-9604 is studied for stimulating lipolysis without the somatic effects of full-length growth hormone.

Adipocyte

A fat cell. The primary site of triglyceride storage and the main target tissue for lipolytic peptides like AOD-9604.

Wound healing

The biological process of tissue repair after injury - inflammation, proliferation (including angiogenesis), and remodeling. BPC-157 and TB-500 are studied for their effects on multiple stages of this process.

Actin

The cytoskeletal protein that forms filaments inside cells. TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4) binds and sequesters monomeric G-actin, regulating the polymerization that drives cell migration during wound repair.

Antimicrobial peptide

A short peptide produced by the innate immune system that disrupts microbial membranes directly. Cathelicidins (like LL-37) and defensins are the major human classes.

Cathelicidin

A family of antimicrobial peptides found in the immune cells of mammals. Humans have a single cathelicidin: LL-37, the mature form produced from the precursor protein CAMP.

Biofilm

A community of bacteria embedded in a self-produced matrix, much harder to clear than free-living bacteria. LL-37 is studied for activity against biofilm-forming pathogens.

T-cell

A lymphocyte that orchestrates adaptive immunity - recognizing specific antigens, killing infected cells, and coordinating immune responses. Thymosin Alpha-1 modulates T-cell maturation in the thymus.

Innate immunity

The fast, non-specific arm of the immune system - physical barriers, antimicrobial peptides, and immediate cellular responses. Acts within minutes of an insult.

Adaptive immunity

The slower, specific arm of the immune system - T-cells and B-cells that recognize particular antigens and form memory. Develops over days to weeks but provides long-lasting protection.

// Hormones & receptors

GLP-1

Glucagon-Like Peptide-1. An incretin hormone that enhances insulin secretion, slows gastric emptying, and signals satiety. GLP-1 receptor agonists are the dominant class of modern metabolic peptide research.

GIP

Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (also called Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide). A second incretin that potentiates insulin response. Dual-agonist peptides like Tirzepatide and triple-agonists like Retatrutide target GIP alongside GLP-1.

Glucagon

A hormone that raises blood glucose and increases resting energy expenditure when activated peripherally. The glucagon component is what differentiates Retatrutide from dual GLP-1/GIP agonists.

GHRH

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone. The hypothalamic signal that triggers the pituitary to release GH. CJC-1295 is a synthetic GHRH analog with extended kinetics.

GHS-R

Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor. The receptor activated by ghrelin and by GHS-R agonists like Ipamorelin, which trigger GH release through a pathway parallel to GHRH.

VEGFR2

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2. The key receptor that mediates new blood vessel formation. BPC-157 is studied for upregulating VEGFR2 expression at injury sites.

// Regulatory & quality

Research Use Only

A product classification meaning the item is sold for laboratory research and is not intended for diagnostic, therapeutic, or human use. All Pepmod products are sold under RUO classification.

ISO/IEC 17025

The international standard for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. A signal that a lab's analytical methods have been independently audited.

CLIA

Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments. US federal accreditation for clinical labs. Often held alongside ISO/IEC 17025 by full-service analytical labs.

Phase III

Stages of clinical drug development. Phase I tests safety in a small group of healthy subjects; Phase II tests efficacy and dose-finding; Phase III tests against a comparator in a large population. Many peptides discussed on Pepmod are in Phase II or III.

FDA

US Food and Drug Administration. Regulates pharmaceuticals, biologics, food, and medical devices. None of Pepmod's products are FDA-approved drugs - they are sold strictly as research chemicals under RUO classification.

EMA

European Medicines Agency. The EU equivalent of the FDA. Approves and monitors drugs across European member states.